Cultural Heritage as Collateral: Iran’s Historic Sites Under Fire

Eskandar Mokhtari*

The February 28, 2026 Israel-U.S. Strikes on Iran, which inflicted extensive damage on historic sites, have intensified concerns over the protection of cultural heritage in modern warfare. Over the course of 39 days of air and missile strikes on cities across Iran, more than 130 historic sites—including over 60 in Tehran—have been damaged or destroyed, alongside a significant loss of civilian life.

Such extensive damage is among the rarest catastrophes to heritage sites in recent decades. In other recent conflicts, damage to cultural heritage has been significant but typically confined to a limited number of emblematic sites. These include the looting of the Iraq Museum in Baghdad during the 2003 invasion, the extensive damage to Palmyra and the Old City of Aleppo during the Syrian civil war, the destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas in Afghanistan in 2001, and the burning of the National Library of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Vijećnica) in Sarajevo in 1993. While each of these cases represents a profound loss to global heritage, the reported damage to more than 130 historical sites within a single month stands out as an unprecedented scale of cultural destruction in modern warfare.

A statement signed by more than 100 international law experts has raised concerns that the conflict may involve violations of the United Nations Charter and international humanitarian law. In a recent development, a separate statement by scholars of archaeology and cultural heritage calls on States Parties to the 1954 Hague Convention to refrain from providing direct or indirect military support for the conflict and to use available diplomatic and political channels to encourage compliance with the Convention by the United States and Israel.

The Golestan Palace, an iconic UNESCO World Heritage–listed site, was among the earliest locations damaged on March 2, while the Rafi-Nia Synagogue—a key site for Tehran’s Jewish community—was among the last to be destroyed on April 7. The palace, an extensive royal complex primarily dating to the Qajar period with earlier origins in the Safavid era, served for centuries as a central seat of royal power in Iran. The recent attack shattered doors and windows across the site, caused the collapse of the Takht-e Marmar veranda’s intricate wooden elements from the Zand period, and destroyed the mirrored ceilings of the famed Hall of Mirrors, immortalized in a celebrated painting by Kamal-ol-Molk’s (1847–1940) painting Talar-e Aineh. Ceilings in multiple halls and verandas—including Shams-ol-Emareh, Iran Hall, Takht-e Marmar Hall, and Brilliant Hall (Talar-e Berliyan) — each notable for its exceptional and unique decorative features have partially collapsed or are now structurally compromised, threatening the palace’s historic integrity.

One of the most sever attacks occurred on 17 March 2026, when parts of the Sa’dabad Complex sustained extensive damage during reported strikes. Home to nearly eighteen palaces and other architecturally significant structures in northern Tehran, Sa’dabad was once the residence of the Qajar and Pahlavi rulers and now hosts Iran’s largest museum complex. Another strike in central Tehran damaged two Art Deco buildings in Baharestan Square and partially destroyed a historic police building in the Tehran Bazaar, an old architectural structure which had no military function. The Majles building (National Consultative Assembly), Eshratabad Palace, and the Senate building were among the capital’s most significant political monuments damaged during this war A rocket struck the main chamber of the Senate building—an important example of modern architecture—bringing down its transparent roof, a structure whose design echoed the dome of the Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque, long regarded as a masterpiece of Safavid architecture.

Historic urban spaces have also not been spared, with damage reported in Arg Square and the northern section of Baharestan Square—both closely tied to the Constitutional Revolution—as well as Ferdowsi Square, Niloufar Square, and Square 72 in Narmak, all deeply embedded in Tehran’s collective memory and urban identity. Having visited some of these sites myself, I am particularly aware of their historical and spatial significance, which makes their reported damage all the more striking.

While a comprehensive assessment of the total damage is not yet possible under current conditions, available evidence—including compiled by CAMEL Heritage Watch, indicates that, by the 8 April ceasefire, a substantial number of historic sites in other cities had been damaged. One of the most significant sites affected is the Chehel Sotoun Palace and pavilion in Isfahan.

Chehel Sotoun, a Safavid-period masterpiece (1501–1736) inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, has been seriously damaged. Naqsh-e Jahan Square—also a World Heritage Site—along with the Ali Qapu Palace and the Shah Mosque (Imam Mosque), major monuments of the early seventeenth century, have likewise been severely affected.

While the existing ceasefire has calmed the strikes, heritage scholars and researchers working at the intersection of culture, heritage, and society have expressed concern about the long-term impacts of such destruction on cities across Iran. Iran is home to dozens of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including world-renowned archaeological complexes such as Persepolis and Pasargadae, each attracting tens of thousands of visitors annually.

Beyond these, the country contains thousands of additional archaeological sites, historic buildings, and religious and educational centers with histories stretching back millennia. According to official U.S. and Israeli military briefings (including statements by U.S. Defense Secretary Pete Hegseth and the Israeli Defense Ministry), by March 25, 2026 (Day 14), U.S. and Israeli forces had dropped over 15,000 bombs on Iran. The full impact of such extensive bombardment on these sites remains unknown, underscoring the urgent need for international support in damage assessment.

The declared objective of precision targeting in contemporary warfare is to reduce damage to civilian populations and non-military infrastructure. Nevertheless, evidence emerging from the 39-day war against Iran suggests that international mechanisms and legal frameworks to monitor damage and holding states accountable have limited operational effect.

International organizations, cultural institutions, and civil society have a responsibility to ensure that existing legal protections are not merely symbolic. Without meaningful enforcement, the devastation unfolding in Iran risks becoming a precedent rather than an anomaly—one that, in time, may render the loss of our shared cultural past increasingly tolerable in the face of future wars.

* Eskandar Mokhtari Taleghani is Professor of Art and Architecture at Azad University and Senior Cultural Heritage Specialist in Iran.